Unit 1 — Vocabulary and Grammar

UNIT 1

Prepared by Mr. Youssef R. Sulaiman

A. Vocabulary Classification

1. Collocations

Definition: A collocation is a combination of words that commonly occur together and sound natural in English.

Function: Collocations help us use words naturally and express meanings accurately. They can follow patterns such as verb + noun, adjective + noun, noun + noun, and verb + preposition.

A. Verb + Noun

(1)make a decision
(2)inform a decision
(3)develop a theory
(4)gather evidence
(5)test ideas
(6)observations
(7)solve a problem
(8)prevent the spread of infection
(9)reduce the incidence of disease
(10)encourage the evolution of antibiotic-resistant bacteria
(11)conserve gas
(12)block bullets
(13)build up our understanding
(14)increase the amount of food
(15)trigger changes
(16)treat a sore throat
(17)establish a theory
(18)make a contribution
(19)provide background knowledge
(20)make a discovery
(21)conduct research
(22)improve the quality of life

B. Adjective + Noun

(23)scientific knowledge
(24)natural world
(25)modern medicine
(26)modern agriculture
(27)high-yield varieties
(28)clean water
(29)limited resources
(30)nutritional deficiencies
(31)antibiotic-resistant bacteria
(32)significant contribution
(33)rigorous testing
(34)natural hazards
(35)everyday decisions
(36)scientific progress
(37)synthetic plastic
(38)static electricity
(39)technological advances
(40)digital alarm clock
(41)nuclear reaction
(42)scientific community

C. Noun + Noun

(43)alarm clock
(44)weather report
(45)cell phone
(46)telephone lines
(47)ballpoint pen
(48)gas pump
(49)germ theory
(50)decision-making process
(51)Green Revolution
(52)Nobel Prize
(53)Atomic Energy Commission

D. Other Collocations and Common Expressions

(54)have an impact on
(55)have implications for
(56)get better mileage
(57)pay at the gas pump
(58)be in the market for
(59)make a significant contribution
(60)play an important role
(61)lead to technological advances
(62)resort to magical explanations
(63)be pleasantly surprised
(64)be interwoven with our lives

E. Collocations Containing Passive Constructions

These expressions are conventional word combinations in appropriate contexts. Grammatically, they also contain passive constructions.

(65)be paired with
(66)be caused by
(67)be based on
(68)be dedicated to
(69)be interwoven with
(70)be awarded a title
(71)be elected as an honorary member

Examples:

(1)New varieties are paired with new fertilizers.
(2)Diseases are caused by germs.
(3)The theory is based on evidence.
(4)The scientist was awarded a prize.

Important: An expression is not automatically a collocation merely because it is passive. Its status as a collocation depends on whether it is a conventional and natural combination in context.

2. Compound Nouns

Definition: A compound word is formed by combining two or more words or word elements to create a lexical unit. A compound noun is a compound that functions as a noun.

Function: Compound nouns name people, objects, places, activities, institutions, and concepts.

A. Open Compounds

(72)cell phone
(73)alarm clock
(74)weather report
(75)gas pump
(76)Nobel Prize
(77)ballpoint pen
(78)telephone line

B. Closed Compounds

(79)ballpoint
(80)smallpox
(81)seafood
(82)commonplace

C. Hyphenated Compounds

(83)hand-washing
(84)decision-making
(85)high-yield
(86)antibiotic-resistant
(87)high-voltage
(88)high-current

Note: Not all these compounds have the same grammatical function. Alarm clock and weather report are compound nouns, while high-yield and antibiotic-resistant are compound modifiers in expressions such as high-yield varieties and antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

Difference Between Collocations and Compound Nouns: Collocations are identified by how commonly and naturally words occur together. Compound nouns are lexical units formed from combined elements that function as nouns.

Examples:

(1)Make a decision: a verb + noun collocation, not a compound noun.
(2)Gather evidence: a verb + noun collocation, not a compound noun.
(3)Alarm clock: a compound noun and a common collocation.
(4)Weather report: a compound noun and a common collocation.
(5)High-yield varieties: a compound modifier within an adjective + noun combination.
(6)Be paired with: a passive construction that can also function as a collocation in context.

Remember: A collocation describes a typical relationship between words, while a compound noun describes a noun formed from combined elements. The categories can overlap.

3. Preposition Combinations

A. Verb + Preposition Combinations

Definition: These are combinations in which a verb is followed by a particular preposition. When the verb and preposition form a conventional grammatical unit, the combination is commonly called a prepositional verb.

Function: The preposition connects the verb to its complement and contributes to the meaning or grammatical pattern.

(89)rely on
(90)focus on
(91)resort to
(92)contribute to
(93)depend on
(94)benefit from
(95)learn about
(96)pay for
(97)agree with
(98)apologise for
(99)apply for
(100)recover from
(101)suffer from
(102)listen to
(103)approve of

Examples:

(1)rely on evidence
(2)focus on the natural world
(3)resort to magical explanations
(4)contribute to the development
(5)depend on available evidence
(6)benefit from scientific progress
(7)learn about the natural world
(8)pay for gas

Grammar Note: The preposition is generally followed by a noun phrase, pronoun, or -ing form.

Examples:

(1)rely on evidence
(2)listen to music
(3)benefit from learning

B. Phrasal Verbs

Definition: A phrasal verb consists of a verb and an adverb particle that form a unit of meaning.

Function: Phrasal verbs express actions, processes, and situations. Their combined meaning may differ from the meaning of the verb alone.

(104)turn off — switch off
(105)build up — develop or increase gradually
(106)end up — finally reach a situation
(107)pay off — produce a good result or benefit

Examples:

(1)Turn off the light.
(2)Science has built up our understanding of electricity.
(3)The experiment could end up being successful.
(4)Their hard work may pay off.

C. Important Distinctions

(1)Turn off: a phrasal verb.
(2)Rely on: a prepositional verb.
(3)Be caused by: a passive construction followed by a prepositional phrase; it can also function as a collocation in context.
(4)Keep the lights on: on describes the state of the lights; it is not a phrasal verb in this sentence.

4. Passive Constructions

Definition: The passive voice is generally formed with a form of be + the past participle of the main verb.

Function: The passive focuses on the person or thing affected by an action. The doer may be omitted or introduced by by.

(108)be paired with
(109)be caused by
(110)be based on
(111)be dedicated to
(112)be interwoven with
(113)be awarded a title
(114)be elected as an honorary member

Examples:

(1)New varieties are paired with new fertilizers.
(2)Diseases are caused by germs.
(3)The theory is based on evidence.
(4)The scientist was awarded a prize.

Relationship with Collocations: These expressions appear in the collocations section because they can function as conventional word combinations. They also appear here because they illustrate passive grammar. This overlap is intentional.

5. Synonyms

Definition: Synonyms are words with the same or similar meanings.

Function: Synonyms help us understand vocabulary, avoid unnecessary repetition, and express ideas more precisely.

(115)stuff — material
(116)interaction — interplay
(117)progress — advance
(118)puzzle — problem
(119)basic — elementary
(120)information — data
(121)reliable — dependable
(122)correct — accurate
(123)error — mistake
(124)amateur — non-professional
(125)expert — specialist
(126)issue — problem
(127)knowledge — understanding
(128)emphasized — accentuated
(129)decimate — destroy or severely reduce
(130)worrisome — troublesome
(131)enormous — immense
(132)curiosity — inquisitiveness
(133)significant — important
(134)commonplace — common
(135)magical — supernatural (in the context of explanations)
(136)courtesy — politeness; good manners
(137)gallantry — chivalry or courteous behaviour; bravery in another sense

Note: These are suggested synonym relationships, not guaranteed replacements in every sentence. Courtesy usually means politeness, whereas gallantry can refer to bravery or chivalrous behaviour.

B. Unit 1 Grammar

Lesson 1: Past Simple Tense and Narration

(1) Definition

The Past Simple describes completed actions or events in the past.

Example: (1) The scientist discovered a new substance.

(2) Forms

(A) Affirmative

Rule: Subject + past form of the verb.

Example: (1) The researcher published a report.

(B) Negative

Rule: Subject + did not (didn't) + base form of the verb.

Example: (1) The researcher didn't publish a report.

Rule: Did + subject + base form of the verb?

Example: (1) Did the researcher publish a report?

Important: After did or didn't, use the base form of the verb.

(3) Spelling Rules

(1)Most regular verbs take -ed: work → worked.
(2)Verbs ending in -e take -d: live → lived.
(3)Consonant + y changes to -ied: study → studied.
(4)Some short verbs double the final consonant: stop → stopped.
(5)Irregular verbs have different forms: go → went.

(4) Uses

The Past Simple is used for:

(1)Completed past actions: She finished the experiment yesterday.
(2)Past events at a specific time: The university opened in 1970.
(3)A sequence of past actions: The researcher collected, examined, and recorded the samples.
(4)Historical events and discoveries: Fleming discovered penicillin in 1928.

(5) Narration

Narration means telling a story or describing events in the order in which they happened.

Common sequencing words: first, then, next, after that, finally.

Example:

(1)First, the researcher collected the samples.
(2)Then, she examined them.
(3)Finally, she recorded the results.

Lesson 2: The Passive Voice

(1) Definition

The Passive Voice focuses on the action or the person or thing receiving the action rather than the doer.

Example:

(1)Active: The scientist discovered a substance.
(2)Passive: A substance was discovered by the scientist.

(2) Formation

Rule: Object + correct form of be + past participle.

To form the passive:

(1)Move the object to the beginning.
(2)Use the correct form of be.
(3)Use the past participle of the main verb.
(4)Add by + doer when necessary.

(3) Passive Forms

(1)Present Simple: am / is / are + past participle. Example: The disease is studied.
(2)Past Simple: was / were + past participle. Example: The ceremony was held.
(3)Future Simple: will be + past participle. Example: The results will be published.
(4)Present Continuous: am / is / are + being + past participle. Example: The samples are being tested.
(5)Past Continuous: was / were + being + past participle. Example: The machine was being repaired.
(6)Present Perfect: has / have + been + past participle. Example: The experiment has been completed.
(7)Past Perfect: had + been + past participle. Example: The equipment had been tested.
(8)Modals: modal + be + past participle. Example: The results must be checked.

(4) Present Perfect Passive: Three Forms

(1)Affirmative: Subject + has / have + been + past participle. Example: The report has been completed.
(2)Negative: Subject + has / have + not + been + past participle. Example: The report has not been completed.
(3)Question: Has / Have + subject + been + past participle? Example: Has the report been completed?

(5) Uses

The passive is used when:

(1)The doer is unknown: The window was broken.
(2)The doer is unimportant: The road was repaired.
(3)The action or result is more important: A new vaccine was developed.
(4)Describing scientific processes: The samples were collected and examined.

Important: The passive is normally formed from transitive verbs, which take an object.

Lesson 3: Forming Adjectives from Nouns Using Suffixes

(1) Definition of a Suffix

A suffix is a group of letters added to the end of a word to form a new word or change its grammatical function.

Example: (1) care → careful.

(2) Definition of an Adjective

An adjective describes a noun by expressing its quality, condition, or characteristics.

Example: (1) The scientist used a dangerous chemical.

(3) Common Adjective Suffixes

(1)-al: relating to something. Example: nation → national.
(2)-ary: relating to something. Example: revolution → revolutionary.
(3)-ic: relating to something or having a particular nature. Example: science → scientific.
(4)-ical: relating to a subject or quality. Example: history → historical.
(5)-ish: having a particular quality or characteristic. Example: child → childish.
(6)-less: without something. Example: hope → hopeless.
(7)-like: similar to something. Example: child → childlike.
(8)-ful: full of something or having a particular quality. Example: care → careful.
(9)-ous: having a particular quality. Example: danger → dangerous.

(4) Spelling Changes

(1)Changing y to i: history → historical.
(2)Removing final e: fame → famous.
(3)Other spelling changes: science → scientific.

Important: Spelling changes depend on the word and suffix.

(5) Position of Adjectives

Adjectives usually appear before nouns or after linking verbs such as be, seem, and become.

Examples:

(1)A dangerous chemical.
(2)The chemical is dangerous.

Lesson 4: Linking Words and Phrases

(1) Definition

Linking words and phrases connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. They express relationships between ideas, such as contrast, cause, result, purpose, and example.

(2) Types, Uses, and Grammatical Structures

(1) Although

Meaning: Expresses contrast or concession.

Structure A: Although + finite clause, + main clause.

Example: (1) Although the experiment was difficult, the scientists completed it.
Finite clause: the experiment was difficult.
Finite verb: was.

Structure B: Main clause + although + finite clause.

Example: (1) The scientists completed the experiment although it was difficult.

Important: Do not normally use but in the same clause to introduce the contrasting main idea after an although-clause.
Incorrect: (1) Although the experiment was difficult, but the scientists completed it.

(2) However

Structure A: Sentence. However, + sentence.

Example: (1) The experiment was difficult. However, the scientists completed it.

Structure B: Independent clause; however, + independent clause.

Example: (1) The experiment was difficult; however, the scientists completed it.

Important: When however connects contrasting independent clauses, use a full stop or a semicolon before it, not just a comma.

(3) Nevertheless

Meaning: Means despite that or even so. It introduces a contrasting idea.

Structure A: Sentence. Nevertheless, + sentence.

Example: (1) The experiment was difficult. Nevertheless, the scientists continued.

Structure B: Independent clause; nevertheless, + independent clause.

Example: (1) The experiment was difficult; nevertheless, the scientists continued.

Important: Nevertheless is a conjunctive adverb, not a coordinating conjunction.

(4) Because

Meaning: Introduces a reason or cause.

Structure A: Main clause + because + finite clause.

Example: (1) The experiment failed because the equipment was damaged.
Main clause: The experiment failed.
Because-clause: because the equipment was damaged.
Finite verb in the because-clause: was.

Structure B: Because + finite clause, + main clause.

Example: (1) Because the equipment was damaged, the experiment failed.

Important: Because is a subordinating conjunction. It introduces a subordinate finite clause.

(5) Due to

Meaning: Introduces a cause.

Structure: Main clause + due to + noun phrase.

Example: (1) The experiment failed due to equipment failure.
(2) The experiment failed due to the damage to the equipment.
Linking expression: due to.
Noun phrase: equipment failure.

Important: Due to is normally followed by a noun phrase, not a finite clause.
Incorrect: (1) The experiment failed due to the equipment was damaged.
Correct: (1) The experiment failed because the equipment was damaged.
Correct: (2) The experiment failed due to the damage to the equipment.

(6) As a result

Meaning: Introduces the consequence of an earlier event.

Structure: Cause sentence. As a result, + result sentence.

Example: (1) The equipment failed. As a result, the experiment stopped.

Important: As a result expresses a consequence, not the original cause.

(7) Consequently

Meaning: Introduces a result or consequence.

Structure A: Sentence. Consequently, + sentence.

Example: (1) The treatment was effective. Consequently, the patients recovered.

Structure B: Independent clause; consequently, + independent clause.

Example: (1) The treatment was effective; consequently, the patients recovered.

Important: Consequently is a conjunctive adverb. It expresses a result, like as a result.

(8) Despite

Meaning: Expresses contrast or an unexpected result.

Structure A: Despite + noun phrase, + main clause.

Example: (1) Despite the difficulty, the scientists completed the experiment.

Structure B: Despite + -ing clause, + main clause.

Example: (1) Despite being tired, the scientists continued working.
Non-finite clause: being tired.
Non-finite verb: being.

Important: Do not use a finite clause directly after despite.
Incorrect: (1) Despite the experiment was difficult, the scientists continued.
Correct: (1) Despite the difficulty of the experiment, the scientists continued.
Correct: (2) Despite the experiment being difficult, the scientists continued.

(9) In spite of

Meaning: Expresses contrast and has a similar meaning to despite.

Structure A: In spite of + noun phrase, + main clause.

Example: (1) In spite of the bad weather, the scientists continued.

Structure B: In spite of + -ing clause, + main clause.

Example: (1) In spite of working for many hours, the scientists continued the experiment.

Important: In spite of contains the preposition of. Do not omit of, and do not add another of after the complete expression.
Incorrect: (1) Despite of the bad weather, the scientists continued.
Correct: (1) Despite the bad weather, the scientists continued.
Correct: (2) In spite of the bad weather, the scientists continued.

(10) So that

Meaning: Expresses purpose: why someone does something.

Structure: Main clause + so that + subject + finite verb.

Example: (1) Scientists conducted further tests so that they could verify their results.
Main clause: Scientists conducted further tests.
Subordinate clause: so that they could verify their results.
Subject: they.
Finite modal verb: could.

Example: (1) The researcher recorded the results so that other scientists could examine them.

Important: So that is followed by a clause containing a subject and a finite verb. Modal verbs such as can, could, will, and would are common in this structure.

(11) Such as

Meaning: Introduces examples of a general category.

Structure: General noun phrase + such as + example(s).

Example: (1) Scientific inventions, such as mobile phones and computers, have changed our lives.
General category: Scientific inventions.
Examples: mobile phones and computers.

Example: (1) Some scientific subjects, such as biology and chemistry, require practical experiments.

Important: Such as introduces examples. It does not normally introduce a complete finite clause.

(12) Alternatively

Meaning: Introduces another choice or possibility.

Structure A: Sentence. Alternatively, + sentence.

Example: (1) Students can work individually. Alternatively, they can work in pairs.

Structure B: Independent clause; alternatively, + independent clause.

Example: (1) Students can work individually; alternatively, they can work in pairs.

Important: Alternatively is an adverb. It introduces an alternative rather than a contrast between opposing facts.

(13) Once

Meaning: In this context, once means formerly or at one time in the past.

Structure: Subject + verb + once + complement.

Example: (1) Some diseases that are treatable today were once fatal.
Subject: Some diseases that are treatable today.
Finite verb: were.
Adverb: once.
Subject complement: fatal.

Example: (1) This method was once widely used in scientific research.

Important: Once has several meanings. It can also mean as soon as, as in: (1) Once the experiment is complete, the scientists will publish the results. In this second use, it introduces a time clause.

(3) Finite and Non-Finite Clauses

(1) What Is a Clause?

A clause is a grammatical unit built around a verb. It usually contains a subject and a verb, although the subject may be understood rather than stated in some types of clause.

Examples:

(1)The experiment failed.
(2)Because the equipment was damaged.
(3)Despite being tired.

(2) Finite Clause

A finite clause contains a finite verb. A finite verb shows tense or is a finite auxiliary or modal verb that operates within a tensed clause.

Examples:

(a)The experiment failed. Subject: The experiment. Finite verb: failed. Tense: past simple.
(b)The scientists are working. Subject: The scientists. Finite verb phrase: are working. Finite verb: are.
(c)The results could change. Subject: The results. Finite verb phrase: could change. Finite modal verb: could.

A finite clause may be independent or subordinate.

Example: (1) Although the scientists were tired, they continued working.
Subordinate finite clause: Although the scientists were tired.
Main finite clause: they continued working.

(3) Non-Finite Clause

A non-finite clause contains a verb in a non-finite form. Its verb does not itself express tense. The main non-finite forms are:

(a) To-infinitive

Example: (1) To obtain accurate results, the scientists repeated the experiment.
Non-finite clause: To obtain accurate results.
Non-finite verb: to obtain.

(b) -ing form

Example: (1) Despite being tired, the scientists continued working.
Non-finite clause: being tired.
Non-finite verb: being.

Example: (1) When tested carefully, the substance showed unusual properties.
Non-finite clause: When tested carefully.
Non-finite verb form: tested.

Important: A non-finite clause can contain a subject of its own.
Example: (1) Despite the experiment being difficult, the scientists completed it.
Non-finite clause: the experiment being difficult.
Subject: the experiment.
Non-finite verb: being.
In contrast, the experiment was difficult is a finite clause because was is finite.

(4) Important Grammatical Differences

(1) Although vs Despite / In spite of

Although + finite clause.

Example: (1) Although the experiment was difficult, the scientists completed it.

Despite / In spite of + noun phrase or -ing clause.

Example: (1) Despite the difficulty, the scientists completed the experiment.
Example: (2) In spite of the experiment being difficult, the scientists completed it.

(2) Because vs Due to

Because + finite clause.

Example: (1) The experiment failed because the equipment was damaged.

Due to + noun phrase.

Example: (1) The experiment failed due to equipment damage.

(3) But vs However

But is a coordinating conjunction that can join two independent clauses.

Example: (1) The experiment was difficult, but the scientists completed it.

However is a conjunctive adverb that introduces a contrasting idea.

Example: (1) The experiment was difficult. However, the scientists completed it.

(4) Because / Due to vs As a result / Consequently

Because and due to introduce a cause.

As a result and consequently introduce a consequence.

Example: (1) Because the equipment failed, the experiment stopped.
Example: (2) The equipment failed. Consequently, the experiment stopped.

(5) Common Mistakes

(1) Although + but

Incorrect: (1) Although the experiment was difficult, but the scientists completed it.
Correct: (1) Although the experiment was difficult, the scientists completed it.

(2) Despite + finite clause

Incorrect: (1) Despite the experiment was difficult, the scientists completed it.
Correct: (1) Despite the difficulty of the experiment, the scientists completed it.
Correct: (2) Despite the experiment being difficult, the scientists completed it.

(3) Due to + finite clause

Incorrect: (1) The experiment failed due to the equipment was damaged.
Correct: (1) The experiment failed because the equipment was damaged.

(4) Despite of

Incorrect: (1) Despite of the bad weather, the scientists continued.
Correct: (1) Despite the bad weather, the scientists continued.

(5) Incorrect punctuation with however

Incorrect: (1) The experiment was difficult, however, the scientists completed it.
Correct: (1) The experiment was difficult; however, the scientists completed it.

Unit 1 Vocabulary and Grammar